India is often described as a land of rivers and monsoons, yet beneath this image lies a stark reality—groundwater, not surface water, sustains the majority of the country’s basic needs. It provides over 85% of rural drinking water and nearly 65% of irrigation water, making it the lifeline for both households and agriculture. But in recent decades, excessive and often unregulated extraction has not only depleted aquifers but also triggered a far more insidious threat—widespread groundwater pollution.

Once considered one of nature’s purest reserves, groundwater in many regions is now tainted with nitrates, heavy metals, industrial chemicals, radioactive elements, and disease-causing microbes. The contamination is often invisible, seeping silently into daily life, yet it poses a severe risk to the health and livelihoods of millions

Extent of the Problem

The 2024 Annual Groundwater Quality Report by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) offers a sobering assessment. Testing samples from 440 districts across the country, the report found:

·         Nitrate contamination in over 20% of samples, driven largely by the overuse of chemical fertilisers and leaching from faulty septic systems.

·         Fluoride levels above safe limits in over 9% of samples, with serious health impacts in states such as Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

·         Arsenic pollution in parts of Punjab and Bihar far exceeding the WHO’s 10 µg/L limit, linked to cancer and neurological disorders.

·         Uranium concentrations above 100 ppb in several districts of Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan—traced to phosphate fertiliser use and excessive groundwater withdrawal.

·         Iron contamination in over 13% of tested samples, contributing to gastrointestinal and developmental problems.

These are not abstract numbers—they represent long-standing neglect, weak policy enforcement, and the absence of robust preventive action.

Groundwater “Death Zones” in India

In some places, contamination has reached levels that have caused immediate and visible tragedies:

·         In Budhpur, Baghpat (U.P.), 13 people died within two weeks due to kidney failure and related complications—suspected to be linked to toxic industrial discharges from nearby paper and sugar mills polluting borewells.

·         In Jalaun (U.P.), residents reported petroleum-like fluids from handpumps, likely due to underground fuel leaks.

·         In Paikarapur, Bhubaneswar, a faulty sewage treatment plant allowed wastewater to seep into groundwater, causing mass illness among hundreds.

Such events are not isolated. They reflect a consistent pattern of weak enforcement, inadequate oversight, and the lack of public visibility for what is essentially an underground disaster

Health Impacts

Studies by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and WHO India confirm that contaminated groundwater has become a nationwide public health crisis.

Fluoride

·         Present in 230 districts across 20 states, fluoride contamination affects around 66 million people.

·         Skeletal fluorosis, a painful and disabling condition causing joint stiffness, bone deformities, and stunted growth, is especially common among children.

·         In Rajasthan, more than 11,000 villages report cases.

·         In Jhabua (M.P.), fluoride exceeds 5 mg/L, with 40% of tribal children affected.

·         In Unnao (U.P.), over 3,000 cases of skeletal deformities have been recorded.

·         The 2024 CGWB report found 9.04% of 15,259 samples above the WHO limit of 1.5 mg/L, with Sonebhadra (U.P.) recording a 52.3% prevalence and Shivpuri (M.P.) showing levels of 2.92 mg/L.

Arsenic

·         Concentrated in the Gangetic belt—including West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Assam.

·         Long-term exposure causes skin lesions, gangrene, respiratory illnesses, and cancers of the skin, kidney, liver, bladder, and lungs.

·         A 2021 study in Nature Scientific Reports found that elevated blood arsenic levels made 1 in 100 people highly vulnerable to cancer.

·         In Ballia (U.P.), arsenic reached 200 µg/L—20 times the WHO limit—linked to over 10,000 cancer and disease cases.

·         Similar trends are seen in Bhojpur and Buxar (Bihar).

·         The 2024 CGWB report flagged unsafe arsenic levels in 29 districts of U.P., with Bagpat recording a staggering 40 mg/L—4,000 times the safe threshold.

Nitrates

·         Especially common in northern India, nitrates are dangerous for infants.

·         When nitrate-rich water is used in baby formula, it can cause methemoglobinemia, or “blue baby syndrome.”

·         The 2023 National Health Profile recorded a 28% rise in hospital admissions for nitrate toxicity over five years, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Karnataka.

·         56% of Indian districts now exceed safe nitrate limits.

Uranium

·         Once detected only in select geological zones, uranium contamination is now more common due to groundwater over-extraction and fertiliser use.

·         In Punjab’s Malwa region, a study by the Central University of Punjab found uranium levels above the WHO limit of 30 µg/L.

·         66% of samples posed a health risk to children, and 44% to adults.

Heavy Metals

·         Lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury enter aquifers from industrial discharges.

·         These metals can impair brain development, cause anaemia, weaken the immune system, and damage the nervous system.

·         ICMR–NIREH studies found dangerously high blood lead levels among children in Kanpur (U.P.) and Vapi (Gujarat).

Microbial Contamination

·         Caused by leaking septic tanks and sewage infiltration, this leads to repeated outbreaks of cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A, and hepatitis E.

·         In Paikarapur, Bhubaneswar, over 500 people fell ill in a recent outbreak linked to sewage-contaminated groundwater.

Structural Causes

The crisis is rooted in regulatory gaps, weak enforcement, and poor data transparency:

• The Water Act (1974) does not adequately address groundwater pollution.

• The CGWB lacks statutory enforcement powers.

• State Pollution Control Boards are chronically understaffed and ill-equipped.

• Penalties for polluters are minimal and rarely enforced.

• Public access to contamination data is limited.

• Over-extraction of groundwater mobilises naturally occurring toxins such as arsenic and fluoride.

Policy Gaps

Currently, India has no National Groundwater Pollution Control Framework. Responsibilities are fragmented between agencies handling drinking water, irrigation, and industrial regulation, and there is poor coordination between public health surveillance and water quality monitoring systems.

Way Forward

A multi-pronged approach is required, combining regulation, technology, and community participation:

Regulatory Reforms

• Provide CGWB with statutory enforcement powers.

• Establish clear accountability at state and district levels.

Monitoring & Data Integration

• Use real-time sensors and satellite aquifer mapping.

• Integrate water quality data with health surveillance systems like HMIS.

Immediate Public Health Interventions

• Deploy arsenic and fluoride removal units in identified hotspots.

• Expand access to safe piped drinking water.

Industrial & Agricultural Measures

• Mandate zero-liquid-discharge systems in industries.

• Monitor effluents and landfill leachate strictly.

• Promote organic or low-chemical farming with farmer training on nutrient management.

Community Involvement

• Engage panchayats, schools, and local user groups in water testing.

• Encourage community-led monitoring and reporting systems.

Conclusion

India’s groundwater challenge has shifted from a question of scarcity to one of safety. With over 600 million people dependent on it, contamination has emerged as a full-fledged public health emergency. Unless addressed through urgent legal reforms, institutional strengthening, and active community involvement, the damage to human health and water security could become irreversible.